Internet use and life satisfaction among empty nesters in rural areas of Yangzhou: based on propensity score matching and mediating effect model

Abstract

Background

Empty nesters represent a unique group that deserves focused attention. Internet usage is becoming increasingly prevalent among older people. This study preliminarily discussed the differences in life satisfaction between empty nesters who used the Internet and those who did not. This study also provided insight into how Internet use interacted with social participation to improve their life satisfaction.

Methods

A face-to-face survey was conducted in Yangzhou City, China, from July to August 2022. Covariates related to life satisfaction, such as sociodemographic characteristics and participants’ health behaviors, were collected. Propensity Score Matching (PSM) was used to match Internet users with non-Internet users. Binomial logistic regression was employed to analyze the association between Internet use and life satisfaction, and the KHB method was used to examine the mediating effect.

Results

1,177 respondents aged 60 and above were ultimately matched for analysis in this study. The results showed that Internet use was significantly correlated with higher levels of both social participation (β = 0.276, P < 0.05) and life satisfaction (β = 0.433, P < 0.05). Social participation partially mediated the relationship between Internet use and life satisfaction, with a mediating effect of 0.112 accounting for 21% of the total effect. Further analysis of group heterogeneity indicated that the positive association between Internet use and life satisfaction was more prominent among participants who were younger, male, unemployed, had an income, and were in relatively healthy conditions.

Conclusions

Internet use was crucial in promoting social participation and enhancing life satisfaction among rural empty nesters. Interventions aimed at improving their life satisfaction should prioritize the creation of inclusive and supportive environments, encouraging social participation, and enhancing digital literacy.

Background

With the acceleration of China’s aging process, the problem of empty nesters has become increasingly prominent. According to 2020 population statistics, the number of empty nesters in China was nearly 150 million [1]. Many adult children in rural areas have moved away for education or employment opportunities, exacerbating the empty nester phenomenon in rural regions. According to the “2020 Report on the Current Situation of Rural Old-Care in China,” over half of older people in rural areas now live in empty-nest households [2].

Influenced by the values of filial piety in traditional Chinese culture, older people in China, particularly those in rural areas, have historically relied heavily on their families, especially their children, for support in their later years. In traditional multi-generational households, there was an implicit expectation that children would care for their aging parents. However, this long-standing cultural norm has been increasingly challenged by modern society, where many children migrate to urban areas in search of work, leaving their elderly parents behind in rural areas [3, 4].

Liu et al. [5] and He et al. [6] have revealed that empty nesters in China express life satisfaction and quality of life than their counterparts in non-empty nest households. Moreover, due to a prolonged lack of spiritual support and neglect from their children, rural empty nesters are particularly prone to feelings of abandonment, which may lead to psychological problems such as low mood, loneliness, anxiety, and even depression [7]. Compared to their urban counterparts, rural empty nesters faced more significant challenges, including limited economic income, a weaker healthcare system, fewer leisure and entertainment activities, and lower level of social participation. These factors exacerbated both the physical and mental health of rural empty nesters, worsening their overall situation [8]. Research showed that 43.9% of rural empty nesters said they often feel lonely and isolated, which is much higher than that of their urban counterparts [9]. Moreover, the quality and availability of healthcare services in rural areas were often inferior to those in urban areas. Rural regions typically have fewer medical facilities and lack specialized care for older adults. As a result, the overall health status of empty nesters in rural areas was concerning, with a higher incidence of chronic illnesses [4, 10]. A systematic review evaluated that the research on empty nesters in China was mainly focused on urban areas, and further research should be conducted in rural areas to better understand the unique challenges faced by rural empty nesters [6]. Therefore, in the context of the aging population, improving the life satisfaction of empty nesters in rural areas has became a key focus of social concern.

With the rapid development of Internet technology, the Internet has played an increasingly important role in people’s daily lives. For the unique group of empty nesters, the widespread adoption and development of the Internet have provided a new way for social interaction and information acquisition. According to the 52nd “Statistical Report on Internet Development in China”, by June 2023, the number of rural Internet users in China had reached 301 million, accounting for 27.90% of the total Internet users [11]. Internet use has offered a new way for empty nesters to alleviate many challenges. It has enabled them to stay connected with distant family members [12], access healthcare information [13], and engage in online and offline social activities [14], all of these factors can contribute positively to their life satisfaction. Therefore, we specifically focused on Internet use, as it represents a modern intervention with significant potential to improve the quality of life for empty nesters.

Life satisfaction reflects an individual’s sense of contentment or fulfillment across various aspects, including personal relationships, work or career aspirations, physical and mental well-being, personal growth, and overall happiness [15, 16]. In the Internet era, the Internet and digital technologies have proven to be essential channels for improving life satisfaction of older people and other vulnerable social groups [17]. Cho, Hyeonmi, et al. have demonstrated the potential effectiveness of promoting mobile Internet use to enhance life satisfaction among older adults [18]. Research based on the U.S. Health and Retirement Study (HRS) has revealed a positive correlation between increased Internet use and heightened social support among older people, helping to reduce feelings of loneliness, ultimately contributing to enhanced life satisfaction and mental well-being [19].

Many studies have examined the multifaceted factors influencing life satisfaction [20], including sociodemographic characteristics, community engagements, family structures, healthy behavioral lifestyles, etc. For example, older people living with their spouses have been shown to have higher life satisfaction [21]. Sleep problems were highly prevalent among older people. Banerjee S et al. examined the positive association between life satisfaction and sleep quality among older Indian people [22]. Additionally, self-rated health (SRH) has emerged as a significant predictor of life satisfaction among older people, with individuals who rate their health as good reporting higher levels of life satisfaction than those who rate their health as poor [23]. A study in South Korea further revealed that older individuals often derive meaning in life from high-quality parent-child relationships and consistent interactions with their children [24]. It could be concluded that the factors contributing to life satisfaction among older people were very complex. We attempted to explore the association between Internet use and life satisfaction among rural empty nesters, and whether there were mediating variables in the association.

Social participation, an important part of active aging aimed at fostering the integration of older people into society or their community [25], is crucial for maintaining well-being. For instance, Lv R’s study showed a strong association between social participation and life satisfaction among community-dwelling older people [26]. Kobayashi, L.C. et al. discovered that Internet use and social engagement can facilitate the maintenance of health literacy among older people during the aging process [27]. Furthermore, Zhang, K. et al. proposed that social media communication could serve as an intervention to alleviate loneliness among older people by bolstering social support and interaction [28].

Though some studies have explored the relationship between Internet use and life satisfaction among older people, limited studies have been conducted specifically on empty nesters in rural areas, and the potential mediating role of social participation has been less discussed. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the association between Internet use and life satisfaction among rural empty nesters, as well as to explore the potential mediating effect of social participation. Based on previous studies, two hypotheses were proposed: (1) there is a significant positive association between Internet use and life satisfaction among empty nesters, and (2) social participation serves as a mediator in the association between Internet use and life satisfaction among empty nesters.

Methods

Sampling and data collection

A cross-sectional study was conducted in Yangzhou City, located in eastern China, between July and August 2022. Initially, six villages were randomly selected within the rural areas of Yangzhou City, based on considerations of population size and geographical location. Within these villages, households were randomly chosen, and from each, one adult resident aged 55 years or older was invited to participate in the survey. Data collection was carried out through face-to-face interviews, during which each participant was thoroughly informed about the study’s objectives and provided their informed consent prior to participation. The questionnaire comprehensively covered the sociodemographic characteristics, behavioral lifestyles, social participation, and life satisfaction of the participants. Prior to the main survey, a pre-survey was conducted to refine the questionnaire, resulting in revisions to several sections to better suit the respondents. Ultimately, 2,192 questionnaires were collected, and among these, the study focused on empty nesters aged 60 years and older. After excluding cases with missing values for key variables, the final sample consisted of 1,224 individuals. Following propensity score matching (PSM), 1,177 respondents were successfully matched for the definitive analysis (as shown in Fig. 1).

Fig. 1

The flowchart of the sample

Measures

Life satisfaction

The dependent variable in this study was life satisfaction. In the questionnaire, participants were asked, “Are you satisfied with your life?” with five response options ranging from 1 (extremely dissatisfied) to 5 (extremely satisfied). A score of 3 was set as the threshold based on previous studies [29, 30], with scores of 3 or below categorized as “less than satisfied” and scores of 4 or 5 categorized as “satisfied.” Thus, life satisfaction was treated as a binary variable, with the two categories being “less than satisfied” and “satisfied.”

Internet use

Internet use was measured by the question, “How often do you use the Internet (including TikTok, short videos, WeChat, etc.)?” The answers included “1 = never”, “2 = occasionally”, “3 = often”, and “4 = always”. Option 1 was coded as “0 = never use the Internet”, and options 2 to 4 were combined and coded as “1 = use the Internet”, making it a binary categorical variable.

Social participation

In terms of social participation, consistent with previous studies [31], participants were asked whether they had participated in the following ten activities over the past month, such as visiting friends, playing mahjong, chess, or cards, and offering help to others. Participants who participated in any of these activities were deemed socially engaged. They were awarded one point for participating in each activity. The higher the score, the greater the level of social participation.

Covariates

Based on previous research [31,32,33], a variety of control variables were taken into consideration, including sociodemographic characteristics (age, gender, marital status, insurance status, profession, and income), behaviors and lifestyle factors (smoking status, drinking status, and sleep quality), health status (self-rated health, chronic condition, and hospitalization within the past year), as well as interactions with children (frequency of meetings with children).

Statistical analysis

In this study, the PSM model was used to reduce selection bias and address the issue of endogeneity in estimating the causal impact of Internet use on life satisfaction among empty nesters [34]. By using PSM, we aimed to create a treatment group (those using the Internet) and a control group (those not using the Internet) that were statistically comparable based on a set of covariates. This ensured that the observed differences in life satisfaction could be more confidently attributed to Internet use, rather than confounding factors.

Stata 17.0 was used to analyze the association between Internet use and life satisfaction among empty nesters. The Wilcoxon rank-sum test was employed for continuous variables, while chi-square tests were used for categorical variables to compare sample characteristics between Internet users and non-Internet users.

The binomial logistic regression model was used to test the relationship between Internet use and life satisfaction. The model was constructed as follows:

$$\:{P}_{Y}(Y=1|{X}_{1,}{X}_{2,}...{X}_{k})=F({\beta\:}_{0}+{\beta\:}_{1}{X}_{1}+{\beta\:}_{2}{X}_{2}\dots\:+{\beta\:}_{k}{X}_{k})$$

$$\:\:=\frac{1}{1+{e}^{-({\beta\:}_{0}+{\beta\:}_{1}{X}_{1}+{\beta\:}_{2}{X}_{2}\dots\:+{\beta\:}_{k}{X}_{k})}}\:$$

(1)

In formula (1),$\:\:P\:$represented the probability of life satisfaction among empty nesters; $\:Y$ represented life satisfaction; $\:{X}_{k}$ represented Internet use; $\:{\beta\:}_{k}$ was the regression coefficient we focused on, reflecting the direction and degree of Internet use’s impact on life satisfaction.

From a theoretical perspective, the engagement of empty nesters in Internet use may be considered as a self-selection behavior, potentially leading to selective bias. We used Rubin’s counterfactual framework [35] as the theoretical foundation, dividing the respondents into an treatment group (using the Internet) and a control group (not using the Internet). To assess the robustness and ascertain the net impact of Internet use on life satisfaction, we employed the PSM method to calculate the Average Treatment Effect on the Treated (ATT), thus mitigating the influence of endogeneity. Psmatch2 was employed for covariate identification and propensity score analysis. The specific models were as followed:

$$\:{y}_{i}=\left(1-{D}_{i}\right){y}_{0i}+{D}_{i}{y}_{1i}={y}_{0i}+\left({y}_{1i}-{y}_{0i}\right){D}_{i}$$

(2)

$$\:\begin{array}{c}ATT=E\left[{y}_{1i}-{y}_{0i}|{D}_{i}=1,P\left(X\right)\right]\\\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:=E\left[{y}_{1i}|{D}_{i}=1,P\left(X\right)\right]-E\left[{y}_{0i}|{D}_{i}=1,P\left(X\right)\right]\end{array}$$

(3)

In formulas (2) and (3), the binary processing variable $\:{D}_{i}$ = {0, 1} was used to indicate whether the respondents utilized the Internet. Specifically, $\:{D}_{i}$ = 1 represented the treatment group (those who used the Internet), while $\:{D}_{i}$ = 0 represented the control group (those who did not use the Internet). The variable $\:{y}_{1i}$ signified the life satisfaction of empty nesters who engaged in Internet, whereas $\:{y}_{0i}$ signified the life satisfaction of empty nesters who did not use the Internet; $\:{y}_{1i}-{y}_{0i}$ represented the processing effect of Internet use among empty nesters. The ATT was calculated as the difference between the life satisfaction of empty nesters who used the Internet and the life satisfaction they would have experienced if they had not used the Internet.

For the mediation analyses, the KHB [36, 37] method was used to examine whether social participation mediated the association between Internet use and life satisfaction. The KHB method decomposed the total effect of the independent variable (X) on the dependent variable (Y) into both direct and indirect effects. The direct effect represented the relationship between X and Y after accounting for the mediator (M), while the indirect effect reflected the extent to which the relationship between X and Y was mediated by M. One key strength of the KHB method was its ability to statistically test the significance of the indirect effect in non-linear settings.

Results

In the final analysis, a total of 1,224 participants were included in the study. Following PSM, we successfully matched 1,177 participants for further examination. Table 1 showed the characteristics of the variables used in this study. The mean age of all empty nesters was 67.1 years. Our study population comprised a higher proportion of females (56.24%) compared to males (43.76%). Approximately 90.91% of empty nesters were married, with over 20% reporting regular weekly contact with their children. Additionally, approximately 60% of the empty nesters indicated that they had a chronic condition. 602 empty nesters (51.15%) who used the Internet and 575 empty nesters (48.85%) who did not use the Internet were included after PSM.

Table 1 Characteristics of the sample after PSM (N = 1177)

The PSM results showed that the t-value of ATT was 2.08 (> 1.96), meaning that after controlling for other factors that may affect life satisfaction, Internet users’ life satisfaction was 2.08 times higher than that of non-users on average. The p-values for all control variables were greater than 0.1, and the biases were all under 10% after matching, indicating no statistically significant differences (see Table 2). All samples successfully passed the balance test, demonstrating no imbalance in control variables. The results indicated that PSM could significantly reduce the error associated with self-selection.

Table 2 Sample balance test

The mean age of Internet users was 65.4 years, younger than that of non-Internet users, who averaged 68.8 years. Statistically significant differences were observed between the two groups of empty nesters in terms of life satisfaction, social participation, age, gender, marital status, income, self-rated health, smoking status, and drinking status (all P < 0.001). More than half of the empty nesters who were extremely satisfied with their lives used the Internet. Empty nesters who used the Internet had higher levels of social participation. We could also see that males used the Internet more than females. Among empty nesters with income, 54.42% of them reported using the Internet. Among those with bad self-rated health, only 34 empty nesters (37.36%) said they did not use the Internet. The detailed characteristics of the other variables were presented in Table 3.

Table 3 Descriptive statistics of empty nesters who used and did not use the internet after PSM

The regression results for Internet use, social participation, and life satisfaction were presented in Table 4. Model 1 included Internet use, life satisfaction, and characteristics of empty nesters. The positive coefficients suggested that Internet use was significantly associated with life satisfaction. In model 2, the dependent variable was social participation, where the positive coefficients indicated that Internet use increased social participation. In model 3, the results indicated that social participation gave rise to higher levels of life satisfaction. In model 4, all possible covariates were controlled, and the results indicated that Internet use was significantly associated with life satisfaction, while social participation was significantly associated with life satisfaction. The effect of Internet use on life satisfaction was correspondingly reduced after including social participation, which suggested social participation might have a partial mediating effect.

Table 4 Association between Internet use, social participation, and life satisfaction among empty nesters

Figure 2 diagrammatically presented the outcomes of our theoretical model. Path a indicated the direct link between Internet use and social participation; path b showed the connection between social participation and life satisfaction; and path c represented the relationship between Internet use and life satisfaction. Path c’ represented the effect of Internet use on life satisfaction, taking into account the mediating role of social participation. Using the KHB method, as shown in Table 5, we found that social participation partially mediated the association between Internet use and life satisfaction. The mediating effect (indirect effect, ab = c - c’) of social participation was 0.112, which accounted for 21% of the total effect.

Fig. 2

The mediating effects of social participation on the relation between Internet use and life satisfaction

Table 5 Models of the mediating role of social participation in the relationship between Internet use and life satisfaction

The research presented above demonstrated a significant correlation between Internet use and life satisfaction among empty nesters. However, this relationship varied across different subgroups, as shown in Table 6. Models 5–7 concluded that there was a significant positive correlation between Internet use and life satisfaction among empty nesters under the age of 70. While Internet use positively influenced the life satisfaction of those aged 66 to 70, this impact was relatively weaker compared to those aged 60 to 65. From a gender perspective, among male empty nesters, there was a statistically significant positive correlation between increased Internet use and higher life satisfaction. Males were more likely than females to overuse the Internet for entertainment, which contributed to their higher life satisfaction levels. In the group of empty nesters who were not in the workforce, a significant positive correlation was also found between Internet use and life satisfaction. In terms of income, although both groups displayed significant results, the regression coefficients were larger for the group with income. This suggested a stronger correlation between Internet use and life satisfaction among those with a source of income. Lastly, the association between Internet use and life satisfaction varied significantly among empty nesters with different health conditions. For those without chronic conditions, Internet use was positively associated with their life satisfaction.

Table 6 Heterogeneity analysis of the impact of Internet use on life satisfaction

Discussion

With the aging population continually increasing, life satisfaction among rural empty nesters needs to be explored for further research. Consistent with previous studies [17, 18, 38], the findings of the current study supported our hypotheses: there was a significant positive association between Internet use and life satisfaction, with social participation acting as a mediating factor in this association.

Unlike Western societies that prioritize individualism, China is an ethical society where filial piety and caring for parents are fundamental moral principles and social norms. However, in today’s fast-paced, high-pressure, and rapidly changing society, many young people, whether actively or passively, choose to leave their elderly parents behind. Similarly, older adults, in turn, may also actively or passively embrace the “empty-nest” life state [4]. “Empty-nest” reflects the physical separation of living space between two generations, which limits the realization of the traditional filial piety tradition. But at the same time, with the rapid development of information technology, the Internet has undergone significant growth in China. The widespread adoption of the Internet has greatly changed the lifestyle of the empty nesters in rural areas, helping to bridge the gap in social interaction and bring them closer to their families.

The Internet served as a powerful tool for addressing the social and geographical challenges faced by empty nesters [39]. These seniors often experience a decline in physical capabilities, psychological stress, and social difficulties [40]. By utilizing the Internet, they can share experiences online, access vital information, and learn digital skills [41]. This digital engagement enabled them to maintain and strengthen relationships with distant family members and friends through video calls and messaging [12]. These connections can help alleviate feelings of loneliness and isolation, contributing positively to their emotional well-being and overall life satisfaction. Additionally, the Internet provided a wide variety of entertainment and leisure activities that enhanced the quality of life for older adults [42]. Various platforms provided access to movies, music, television shows, and online games, which can contribute to spiritual enjoyment [43]. The benefits of these aspects in enhancing life satisfaction among empty nesters should be considered.

Social participation was positively correlated with life satisfaction among empty nesters. By engaging in community activities, clubs, or organizations, these individuals can establish and maintain meaningful connections with others. Such social interactions helped reduce feelings of loneliness and isolation [44], providing emotional support and friendship [45], which in turn enhanced their overall life satisfaction. Additionally, social participation offered opportunities for empty nesters to play active roles in their communities, whether through volunteering or taking part in group activities [46]. This involvement fostered a sense of belonging, which contributed to their self-worth and fulfillment. Furthermore, participating in social activities encouraged both physical and mental engagement, thereby promoting better overall health [47]. Good health was a crucial factor in improving life satisfaction.

We also found that social participation played a mediating role between Internet use and life satisfaction among empty nesters. The findings were consistent with previous research as well [43, 48]. The Internet emerged as a facilitating platform, enabling empty nesters to access a broader range of social activities, which in turn provided them with positive experiences. Specifically, the enhanced opportunities facilitated by online engagement contributed significantly to their social participation. Furthermore, social participation among empty nesters was instrumental in maintaining their physical and mental well-being, as well as enhancing their overall quality of life. By fostering social interactions and engagement, these activities provided a sense of belonging and purpose, which were crucial for their health and happiness. Consequently, social participation acted as a crucial link between their Internet use and overall life satisfaction.

Internet use was more strongly associated with life satisfaction among middle-aged and younger empty nesters compared to their older counterparts. Younger empty nesters tended to exhibit better cognitive function and showed a greater willingness to embrace new technologies. They made use of the Internet’s information accessibility to meet various needs, which positively impacted their overall life satisfaction. In contrast, older empty nesters may face more barriers to Internet usage [31]. Regarding gender differences, males typically had more exposure to technology and related activities, making it easier for them to accept and use the Internet as they age [49]. Moreover, older males may have more leisure time available to use the Internet, while older females often shoulder greater household responsibilities, leading to reduced Internet usage. Non-employed empty nesters may increasingly rely on the Internet for information due to a lack of daily work and social activities. In contrast, those who were employed may have limited time to engage with the Internet [50]. For empty nesters with an income, the use of the Internet had a stronger correlation with their life satisfaction, which may be because the Internet provided information acquisition, social interaction, entertainment, and other functions to meet some of their needs. Conversely, empty nesters without an income may not access the Internet as frequently or fully due to economic constraints, thus weakening the potential impact of Internet use on life satisfaction [51]. Additionally, empty nesters with chronic conditions may be influenced by various other factors, such as psychological stress and the increased economic burden associated with their conditions, which can obscure the positive relationship between Internet use and life satisfaction [52].

Our findings significantly contributed to both practice and policy in addressing the unique challenges faced by empty nesters in this vulnerable population. The implications of our research for practice suggested that interventions promoting Internet access and digital literacy among rural empty nesters could positively impact their overall well-being. For example, community-based organizations and social service providers could develop targeted programs that meet the specific needs of this group. These programs could include training and support for using digital technologies, establishing online social networks, and providing access to mental health resources. Additionally, our research highlighted the importance of fostering social support networks to encourage social interactions and reduce feelings of isolation and loneliness among rural empty nesters. These networks can offer both practical assistance and emotional support, significantly enhancing life satisfaction. In terms of policy implications, the study emphasized the need for comprehensive and targeted policies to address the challenges faced by rural empty nesters in Yangzhou and similar rural areas. Policymakers must address the digital divide between rural and urban areas, particularly the gap affecting the elderly. This included initiatives aimed at expanding Internet access and digital literacy within this population, such as investing in infrastructure to improve broadband coverage in rural areas and providing subsidies or discounts for Internet services to older people. Additionally, policymakers should prioritize the development of accessible mental health resources and services, as mental health issues were often a significant challenge for this demographic.

This study has several limitations. Firstly, the participants were selected from a survey focused on residents’ health status. They were relatively young and may not be representative of the whole sample. Secondly, although we adjusted for as many covariates as possible and used PSM to make the results as robust as possible, the factors influencing life satisfaction were complex, and some biases may remain unobserved. Thirdly, our measurement of life satisfaction is rudimentary, we plan to use well-established scales to conduct research in the future. Finally, the surveys were only conducted on rural empty nesters in Yangzhou City, eastern China, studies of urban empty nesters and other areas need to be added to ensure our findings were nationally representative.

Conclusions

Our results confirmed a significant positive association between Internet use and life satisfaction among rural empty nesters, highlighting the mediating role of social participation. Increased Internet use led to improved social participation, which in turn enhanced life satisfaction. The government should evaluate and adjust policies to ensure that empty nesters have equal access to the Internet. Additionally, tailored Internet services and resources, such as health information, online courses and social networking platforms, should be provided according to their specific needs and interests.