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Glaucoma prevalence and treatment in sub-Saharan Africa’s elderly population: a scoping review

BMC Geriatrics volume 25, Article number: 255 (2025) Cite this article

Abstract

Background

Glaucoma is one of the leading causes of visual impairment and blindness globally, mainly affecting older adults. Disproportionately affecting people of African descent, its high prevalence, combined with the region’s limited healthcare infrastructure and access to eye care services, make it a major public health challenge deserving attention in sub-Saharan Africa.

Objective

This paper aims to synthesise current literature on glaucoma prevalence and management options among older adults in sub-Saharan Africa.

Materials and methods

A systematic search was conducted using databases including PubMed, Scopus, Medline, and Google Scholar. Following inclusion criteria and study objectives, five published articles from 2013 to 2022 were included in this scoping review.

Results

We found that, generally, across various studies reviewed, the prevalence of glaucoma among adults aged 60 and above was high. Glaucoma prevalence increases with age. Current management options were pharmacotherapy, surgery and laser, with pharmacotherapy most often the first line. Although initially cheaper, the other options are practical and cost-effective over time.

Conclusion

This scoping review adds to evidence that with the growing population, glaucoma continues to be a public health issue since glaucoma has a high prevalence among older adults, particularly in SSA. With most of the sub-Saharan population’s high prevalence and low-income levels, ideal management must include early screening and detection and reliable and long-term treatment options that are not particularly dependent on patient compliance and adherence. Evidence-based policies are needed to reduce the prevalence of glaucoma-related visual impairment for older adults across sub-Saharan Africa.

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Introduction

Glaucoma is one of the leading causes of visual impairment and blindness globally, mainly affecting older adults [1]. Globally, it is estimated that approximately 7.7 million people are affected by glaucoma [1,2,3]. Glaucoma results in optic nerve damage and is usually associated with increased intraocular pressure [4]. When left untreated, it can lead to irreversible blindness.

Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) makes up 11% of the global population and has a global disease burden of 24% [5]. The prevalence rate of glaucoma is high in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), and it poses significant public health challenges due to the region’s limited healthcare infrastructure and access to eye care services [6]. Ocansey et al. [7] reported a 4.4% prevalence of glaucoma in the African region. With people of African descent being disproportionately affected by glaucoma, particularly primary open glaucoma [8] and the high prevalence of the disease, glaucoma is a significant public health concern in SSA.

The SSA region faces unique barriers in managing glaucoma, including a severe shortage of ophthalmologists, inadequate healthcare facilities, and limited access to diagnostic and therapeutic technologies [9]. Additionally, accessibility to healthcare facilities is still a challenge [10]. SSA has approximately 2.5 ophthalmologists per million people, which is far below the recommended standard and significantly impedes effective glaucoma management [9]. Socioeconomic factors further increase the burden of glaucoma in SSA. Rural areas are disproportionately affected due to logistical barriers and insufficient health education, leading to delayed diagnosis and treatment [11].

Poverty significantly limits access to essential eye care services, and educational disparities also contribute to a lack of awareness about the disease and its potential consequences [12]. These socioeconomic and environmental factors collectively hinder effective management and increase the prevalence of glaucoma among older adults in SSA. Therefore, targeted interventions are needed to address these disparities and improve eye health outcomes.

According to Olawoye et al. [13], SSA has many management strategies. However, these strategies face significant barriers, some of which are cost, accessibility, and adherence challenges. Medications for glaucoma management, though cheaper than surgical interventions among the population, are often inaccessible due to high costs and limited availability [14]. Surgical options, although practical, are underutilised due to the scarcity of surgical facilities and trained personnel [15] and some level of fear associated with surgery [16]. Health education initiatives aimed at raising awareness and promoting early detection are often hampered by educational disparities and logistical constraints [17].

Studies have postulated that age is a known risk factor for glaucoma [18, 19]. With the increase in life expectancy across countries in SSA, there is expected to be an increase in the ageing population in the region. Also, people of African descent are highly susceptible to glaucoma; this only shows that in the ageing population in SSA [20], these challenges facing eye care services and the existing socioeconomic issues affecting the management of the condition can be very detrimental to the population.

Glaucoma is a leading public health concern, and more studies are needed on its prevalence and management among older adults in SSA. This review aims to comprehensively assess the prevalence and management of glaucoma among older adults in SSA.

Method

This scoping review was conducted following the six-stage framework by Arksey and O’Malley [21]. The framework was adopted because it helps assess the literature, examine what has been done and identify gaps in knowledge that need attention. Arksey and O’Malley suggest that the following stages should be followed in conducting a scoping review: (1) identifying and stating the research questions; (2) identifying relevant studies; (3) study selection; (4) data collection; (5) data summary and synthesis of results; and (6) consultation (See Table 1).

In the first stage, we identified and formulated the research questions to guide this scoping review: (1) what is the prevalence of glaucoma among older adults in SSA? (2) What are the current management strategies for glaucoma in SSA? (3) What are the barriers to effective management and treatment of glaucoma among older adults in SSA?

Table 1 Search strategy for articles on the prevalence and management of Glaucoma among older adults in SSA
Full size table

Results

The search was conducted in four main databases, and 302 records were produced. An additional 28 records were identified through a Google and citation search. After removing duplicates (235) using Rayyan software,85 articles were eligible for screening. Fifty of this number were excluded because they did not meet the inclusion criteria. Finally, twenty-one (21) full-text records were included in the thematic analysis and synthesis (see Fig. 1 for details on the screening process in the PRISMA flow diagram).

Fig. 1
figure 1

PRISMA flow diagram

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Characteristics of included studies

The literature review included studies conducted in SSA on the prevalence and management of glaucoma among older adults. Of the 21 studies reviewed, nine were cross-sectional, six were retrospective, two were prospective, three were multicentre, and one was a randomised control trial.

All studies were conducted in SSA countries, and all papers were published from 2000 to 2024. Ten studies addressed the prevalence among the targeted population, and eleven addressed management options in treating glaucoma. Based on the research questions, two main themes were derived from the reviewed studies: (1) Prevalence of glaucoma among older adults in SSA; (2) Current management strategies for glaucoma in SSA.

Prevalence of glaucoma among older adults in SSA

In identifying various causes of visual disability and impairment in SSA, particularly older adults, glaucoma was reported as one of the leading causes of blindness or visual disability [22, 23]. A study revealed that one in every 5 persons with glaucoma in the region was blind [6]. With the high prevalence of glaucoma, particularly among older people, the condition is said to be a public health issue [24].

Various studies reported that primary-open angle glaucoma (POAG) was the most common subtype [25, 26]. These studies recorded prevalence rates comparable to those in other black populations. Although POAG is the most prevalent glaucoma subtype, Primary Angle Closure Glaucoma (PACG) was also found to have a significant prevalence [27, 28].

Management of glaucoma

Available therapy for glaucoma in SSA includes medical therapy, surgical treatment, and laser procedures. A multicentre cross-sectional study revealed that medical therapy was the first-line option for managing glaucoma in the region, whilst laser was underutilised even in centres where it was available [29]. A randomised control trial which compared timolol- one of the most affordable and commonly used glaucoma medications, with selective laser trabeculoplasty (SLT) in patients with glaucoma showed that although timolol was more common, SLT was superior to managing IOP [30].

It was also established that treatment of glaucoma in this region is difficult due to the cost and unavailability of most treatment options. Even with the higher cost of surgical interventions, low levels of complaints for medication give surgical interventions an upper hand [31, 32]. However, a study conducted among ophthalmologists showed that one main limitation of trabeculectomies in Nigeria was the unwillingness of patients to agree to the surgical intervention [30]. The study found a low trabeculectomy rate of 0.9/ophthalmologists/month [30]. Papers which focused on glaucoma surgery and its output revealed that there was a low rate of glaucoma surgery, and some factors causing this were fear of surgery and fear of going blind [33,34,35].

For glaucoma surgeries in Nigeria, trabeculectomy with intraoperative 5-fluorouracil was the most common surgical intervention [35]. Another study on glaucoma surgeries in Nigeria ranked trabeculectomy as the most performed procedure, followed by g-probe and laser trabeculoplasty [36].

One paper on trabeculectomy outcomes in a Nigerian population in 2000 revealed that trabeculectomy without antimetabolite was more effective in reducing IOP in advanced glaucoma [37]. However, another paper in 2006 in Rwanda revealed that trabeculectomy with anti-metabolites is one of the best available options for glaucoma management in SSA [38]. In addition, another study showed that Mitomycin-C as a supportive treatment during trabeculectomy in black Africans had a great effect on lowering IOP amidst complications [39]. Furthermore, in Southwest Ethiopia, the Ahmed glaucoma valve was said to be an effective and safe procedure [40].

Few reports on the outcomes of laser procedures exist due to their low acceptance. A study on the effectiveness of primary transscleral diode laser cyclo photoablation for glaucoma in Nigeria concluded that the procedure controlled IOP in almost three-quarters of eyes at 12 months with short-term preservation of vision and very low complications [41] (See Table 2 and Fig. 2).

Table 2 Data extraction sheet
Full size table
Fig. 2
figure 2

Pictorial graph showing publication year for included studies

Full size image

Discussion

Glaucoma is one of the most common causes of vision impairment globally. With people of black descent being susceptible to glaucoma and the limited accessibility to health services, glaucoma continues to be a significant public health concern. This review focused on presenting available data on the prevalence and management options for glaucoma among older adults in SSA [42].

Prevalence of glaucoma among older adults in SSA

Glaucoma was identified as one of the major causes of visual impairment in SSA. In Uganda, a study revealed that glaucoma had a prevalence of 11.7% and was the third cause of visual impairment [22]. In Osun state, Nigeria, glaucoma was noted to be the second cause of blindness in the region (32.4%) [23].

Various studies have been conducted in various regions in SSA to determine the prevalence of glaucoma. All studies which focused on glaucoma prevalence established there is a high prevalence of glaucoma in this region. In an East African population, glaucoma was prevalent in 4.16% of the study population (a total of 3268 people) [26]. In Akinyele district, Southwestern Nigeria, the prevalence of glaucoma was 7.3%, and in Tema, Ghana, the prevalence of POAG was 6.8% [43]. These prevalence rates are similar and comparable to prevalence rates from the Barbados Eye Study [44].

It is also worth noting that the prevalence of glaucoma was also seen to increase with increasing age. The results of Kyari et al.‘s study showed that the prevalence of glaucoma among those aged 60–69 was 6.42%, aged 70–79 10.77%, and age 80 + 14.74% [6]. This was like another paper, with a glaucoma prevalence of 12.2% amongst the 60–79 age group and 14.6 for both the 70–79 and 80 and above age groups [26].

For the prevalence of glaucoma subtypes, POAG was the most common subtype in the region. In the East African population for glaucoma prevalence, POAG was diagnosed in 3.1% (95% CI 5 2.5, 3.8%), while PACG and other forms had a prevalence of 0.59% (95% CI 5 0.35, 0.91%) and 0.49% respectively [26]. For the southwestern Nigeria population, POAG was found in 6.2% (95% CI 4.5–7.8%) and primary angle closure glaucoma in 0.2% (95% CI 0.0–0.6%) [25]. One hospital-based study in Nigeria had its prevalence rate of glaucoma high, particularly POAG (11.55%,95% CI 10.73–12.42%), whereas the prevalence of PACG was (3.68, 95%CI 3.22 – 4.22) increased by 15% over 5 years. POAGs were also the most common diagnosis in another study [46].

Although the prevalence of PACG is relatively low compared to POAG, PACG is not uncommon. A study conducted in Ibadan, Nigeria, revealed a prevalence of 9.2% for angle closure with or without glaucoma; another in Tamale, Ghana, had a third of the sample size presenting with PACG [27, 28].

Management options of glaucoma among older adults in SSA

Pharmacotherapy, laser, and surgical treatments are the known management options for glaucoma globally [45]. Pharmacotherapy is usually the first line of treatment due to its availability and lesser risks than laser and surgical treatments [45], which are more cost-effective in the long run and substantially lower IOP over a long period.

For most studies, cost, availability, and accessibility to various treatment options are the main factors that affect glaucoma management. A study on treatment patterns of glaucoma in SSA concluded that medical therapy was the most preferred option by physicians in SSA as it is usually readily available. In contrast, laser therapy was underutilised in centres where it is available [29]. Aside from cost, fear of surgery and fear of going blind were the most common reasons for refusal of glaucoma surgery [34].

A study on the acceptance of glaucoma therapy revealed that in SSA, the acceptance of glaucoma therapy was generally high. In one multicentre study, the acceptance rate for various managements varied, with medical therapy being accepted in 99.2% of eye laser therapy, 88.3%, and surgical therapy in 69.3% [46].

For surgical interventions, trabeculectomy with intraoperative 5-fluorouracil was the most common procedure [32, 35], and in that same multicentre study, the overall number of glaucoma surgeries per ophthalmologist per month was 1. Another study reported a low rate of trabeculectomy of 0.9/ophthalmologist/month [30]. Aside from trabeculectomy, Bogunjoko et al. [36] stated that g-probe and laser trabeculoplasty were the most performed glaucoma surgeries [36]. According to Mwanza & Kabasale [39], using mitomycin-C as a supportive treatment for trabeculectomy in a black population increased its success rate (81.8% compared to 63.6% for eyes not receiving mitomycin-C).

With the low acceptance rates of glaucoma surgeries, there are few studies on laser therapy and its outcomes in SSA. One study found that though less patronised, transscleral diode laser cyclophotocoagulation controlled IOP in almost three-quarters of eyes at 12 months with short-term preservation of vision and minimal complications [41].

According to Philippin et al. [26], selective laser trabeculoplasty is a superior option in managing glaucoma compared to timolol, a low-cost eyedrop often used to manage glaucoma in SSA. SLT provided a success rate of 61%, while timolol had a rate of 31% in the study [30]. A study conducted amongst older adults in South Africa showed that selective laser trabeculoplasty effectively reduced IOP in adults with or without prior medical or surgical antiglaucoma therapy. The study also stated that although all options for glaucoma management are limited in SSA, selective laser trabeculoplasty was the most practical option.

It is worth noting that although various measures are available in developed regions, they are not as common and easily available in the SSA region. The region has limited resources to make all management options readily available.

Policy implications

Government authorities and policymakers must prioritise making resources available to reduce costs and increase the availability of all management options for glaucoma. Policies and interventions should also include health education and awareness of glaucoma, its prevalence in the region, and the susceptibility of members of the SSA region. Lastly, policies supporting research and data collection on glaucoma prevalence and management are essential since they provide evidence for decision-making and resource allocation.

Limitations

This scoping review has a few limitations. The reliance on only English-language publications may have excluded relevant studies published in other languages, potentially limiting the comprehensiveness of the findings. The variability in study designs, sample sizes, and diagnostic criteria across the included studies makes direct comparisons challenging. Additionally, all the studies reviewed had limitations that could have influenced the determined prevalence rates.

Conclusion

This review confirms that glaucoma is highly prevalent in the SSA subregion and generally increases with age. Although surgical intervention is preferred in most developed countries, the cost involved and fear and anxiety regarding outcomes among the older population in SSA make it a less welcome option. Medical management with eye drops is the most preferred option for this population. Awareness creation and possible inclusion of surgical interventions in the health insurance of developing countries could help improve the acceptance rate for surgical intervention for glaucoma.

Data availability

Data and recordings used for this review are within the manuscript.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana

    Jacob Owusu Sarfo

  2. Centre for Behaviour and Wellness Advocacy, Koforidua, Ghana

    Jacob Owusu Sarfo, Prince Mordi & Esi Kyirba Aggrey

  3. Department of Optometry & Vision Science, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana

    Prince Mordi & Esi Kyirba Aggrey

  4. Emmanuel Eye Medical Centre, Accra, Ghana

    Adjoa Safoa Panyin Quaicoe

  5. Public Health Nursing Department, School of Nursing and Midwifery, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana

    Priscilla Yeye Adumoah Attafuah

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Contributions

J.O.S. and P.Y.A.A. conceptualized the review. E.K.A., P.M., J.O.S. and P.Y.A.A. wrote and analysed the first and final drafts. A.S.P.Q. participated in the consultation stage as an expert reviewer. J.O.S. and P.Y.A.A. supervised the entire writing process. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Priscilla Yeye Adumoah Attafuah.

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Sarfo, J., Mordi, P., Aggrey, E. et al. Glaucoma prevalence and treatment in sub-Saharan Africa’s elderly population: a scoping review. BMC Geriatr 25, 255 (2025). https://doiorg.publicaciones.saludcastillayleon.es/10.1186/s12877-025-05901-0

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  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doiorg.publicaciones.saludcastillayleon.es/10.1186/s12877-025-05901-0

Keywords

BMC Geriatrics

ISSN: 1471-2318

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