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Prevalence of obsessive-compulsive disorder in the older person: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BMC Geriatrics volume 24, Article number: 874 (2024) Cite this article

Abstract

Background

The process of aging is a phenomenon that occurs universally in all living organisms. It begins during intrauterine life and persists until death. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) can significantly impact the lives of older adults, especially in their relationships with others, including spouses or partners. These relationships often involve conflicts or may be affected by the individual’s OCD symptoms, such as rituals. Hence, the present study aimed to investigate the prevalence of OCD among the older person population.

Methods

The systematic review and meta-analysis were carried out without a time limit until March 2024. To identify articles pertinent to the study’s objectives, searches were conducted on Embase, PubMed, Scopus, WOS, and Google Scholar databases using appropriate keywords and validated with MeSH/Emtree. The I2 index was utilized to assess heterogeneity among the studies.

Results

Ultimately, 10 articles meeting all the inclusion criteria had a sample size of 54,377. The estimated prevalence of OCD in the older person worldwide is 2.4% (95% confidence interval: 1.8%-3.3). The Asian continent showed the highest prevalence of OCD in the older person at 3.5% (95% confidence interval: 2.4–5.1), while the female population had an estimated prevalence of 2.7% (95% confidence interval: 1.9–3.8). As the publication year increased, there was an upward trend in the quality assessment score and the age of OCD prevalence in the older person (P < 0.05).

Conclusion

The results of the present study indicate a high prevalence of OCD among the older person. Hence, it is advised that greater attention be directed towards this issue by experts, authorities, and health policymakers.

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Background

The process of aging is observed in all living organisms and begins during intrauterine life, persisting until death [1]. As the number of births decreases and life expectancy increases, the proportion of older person individuals in the overall population is growing [2]. The World Health Organization defines geriatrics as the medical specialty focused on individuals aged 60 years or older [3]. A substantial increase in the older person population globally has been noted over the past few decades, with projections indicating that this trend will persist. The World Health Organization [4] highlights a demographic shift and predicts that by 2025, the number of individuals aged 60 and above worldwide will reach 1.2 billion, rising to two billion by 2050 [5]. It is essential to prepare for this new demographic landscape, as the percentage of individuals aged 80 years or older (the oldest people) was approximately 14% in 2013 and is anticipated to reach 19% by 2050. If this forecast holds for 2050, there will be 392 million individuals aged 80 or above, which is three times the current Figure. [2].

The aging population poses significant challenges for societies worldwide. The rise in the number of older person individuals globally has led to a substantial surge in the demand for healthcare services, including nursing homes and hospitals [6]. Due to socio-economic conditions, people are living longer lives. Nevertheless, a considerable portion of the older person population resides alone and may face social exclusion [7]. The World Health Organization’s aging report highlights that the primary global burden on healthcare budgets is attributed to the increase in chronic non-communicable diseases, particularly prevalent among adults and older individuals, such as heart disease, cancer, diabetes, dementia, etc., especially in developing nations [8] Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a prevalent and persistent mental disorder that can have a profound impact on individuals [9]. It is characterized by perturbing and intrusive thoughts, known as obsessions, and recurring behaviors, referred to as compulsions, which individuals feel compelled to perform. This disorder is not limited to specific cultures but is observed globally, with similarities in symptom patterns, gender distribution, age of onset, and comorbidity prevalence. According to the DSM-5, which is the recognized diagnostic manual for mental disorders, the lifetime prevalence of OCD in the general population ranges from 2 to 3% based on various studies conducted [10,11,12]. To date, the primary treatment options for OCD include cognitive-behavioral therapy involving exposure and response prevention techniques, as well as the use of serotonin reuptake medications (SRIs) [12].

Obsessive-compulsive disorder presents as a chronic psychiatric condition characterized by recurring obsessive thoughts and time-consuming compulsive behaviors. It ranks as the 10th most disabling neuropsychiatric disorder globally. Research indicates a prevalence of 0.7-3.0% in adults and 0.25–0.30% in children, highlighting the significant clinical and societal impact of OCD ze [11]. Studies have shown that individuals over 50 years old often experience more physical symptoms, religious preoccupations, and moral obsessions as part of their obsessive thoughts. In older women, OCD may manifest as a primary disorder, while in men, it can either persist from earlier years or emerge alongside another psychiatric or medical condition [12].

OCD is a rare problem in the older person and often has non-psychological causes [9]. Of course, cases of this disorder have also been observed in older person people without brain abnormalities. In general, the root of obsession is in genetics, biological factors, learning and consolidation [11]. This disorder can be caused by various factors. For example, the main causes of obsessions can be influenced by stressful life events, hormonal changes and personality type [9]. OCD can reduce the quality of life of the older person and increase their risk of falling [11].

Several preliminary studies have been conducted on the prevalence of OCD in the older person in different parts of the world during the past years until today. But these studies have investigated the prevalence in a limited geographical area with small sample sizes. In addition, in none of the studied studies, the effect of potential factors such as the year of the study, sample size, study population, diagnostic tools and gender of the older person have not been investigated, and considering the change in the population structure in different parts of the world, the prevalence rate has not been investigated separately. They have not reported in different continents. Also, there are many differences in the prevalence rates reported in their results. Therefore, it seems necessary to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis study in order to combine, summarize, unify, resolve the contradictions of the results of the studies, investigate the effect of potential factors, and also estimate the global prevalence of OCD in the older person. According to our knowledge, such a study has not been done so far. Therefore, the present study aims; Determining the global prevalence of OCD in the older person was done by systematic review and meta-analysis.

Methods

The present study employed the systematic review and meta-analysis methodology without any temporal limitations until March 2024. This study followed the PRISMA 2020 guidelines (http://www.prisma-statement.org/), encompassing the stages of Identification, Screening, Eligibility, and Inclusion [13]. To minimize errors, inaccuracies, and publication bias, two researchers (M.K. and S.H.) independently conducted all phases of article search, evaluation, identification, selection, and data extraction. In instances of disagreement between the researchers, a supervisor (M.R.) was consulted for resolution, resulting in a consensus.

To identify articles about the research question on the prevalence of OCD in the older person, a comprehensive search was conducted across international databases including PubMed, Embase, Scopus, and Web of Science (WoS). The search strategy for each database was determined by utilizing validated keywords, incorporating Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) for PubMed and Emtree (Elsevier’s authoritative life science thesaurus) for Embase. These keywords were combined using OR and AND operators. For instance, the search strategy for PubMed was established as follows:

(((Prevalen*[Title/Abstract]) OR (Prevalence [MeSH Terms])) AND ((“Obsessive Compulsive Disorder“[MeSH Terms]) OR (“Obsessive Compulsive“[Title/Abstract]))) AND ((((((Older person [Title/Abstract]) OR (Old*[Title/Abstract])) OR (Geriat*[Title/Abstract])) OR (Older persons [Title/Abstract])) OR (Elderlies[Title/Abstract])) OR (Aged[Title/Abstract])).

Studies were sought without any limitations on time or language to ensure all relevant articles were gathered up to March 2024. To enhance the thoroughness of the search, both the Google Scholar search engine and all sources of articles about the research question were manually reviewed.

Inclusion criteria

  1. 1.

    Original research articles.

  2. 2.

    Articles that involve observational studies such as cross-sectional or cohort studies.

  3. 3.

    Access to the full text of the article.

  4. 4.

    Studies that have reported the prevalence of OCD in the older person in terms of percentage or frequency.

  5. 5.

    Studies that were conducted on people 60 years and older.

Exclusion criteria

  1. 1.

    The research question being not aligned with the studies conducted.

  2. 2.

    Clinical trial studies, field trial studies, and social trial studies, along with qualitative studies, case series, case reports, letters to the editor, conference presentations, secondary studies, theses, and animal studies.

  3. 3.

    Inability to access the complete article despite three email attempts to the study’s author.

  4. 4.

    Repetitive and redundant studies found across multiple databases.

Selection process of the studies

Once the search strategy for each database was determined, the articles retrieved from various databases were entered into the EndNote X8 software. Initially, any duplicate or overlapping studies found in different databases were eliminated. Subsequently, the authors’ names, institutions, and journals associated with all the studies were removed. Following this, the title and abstract of each study were scrutinized, and any studies unrelated to the subject matter were excluded. Lastly, the full text of the remaining articles underwent a meticulous examination based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria, resulting in the exclusion of irrelevant studies. Ultimately, only the articles that fulfilled all the inclusion criteria proceeded to the qualitative evaluation stage.

Qualitative evaluation of the studies

The qualitative assessment of the studies included in the meta-analysis was performed using the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) checklist [14]. This checklist comprises 9 distinct inquiries covering various aspects such as sample frame, participants, and sample size, detailed description of study subjects and setting, data analysis, appropriate methods for condition identification, measurement techniques, statistical analysis, and satisfactory response prevalence. The scoring process involved assigning a “Yes” for positive indications, a “No” for negative indications, and an “NA” for cases where no information was provided. According to the JBI criteria, the scoring ranged from 0 to 9. A score falling between 1 and 3 was categorized as low quality, while a score between 4 and 6 was deemed as medium quality. Scores ranging from 7 to 9 were considered high quality based on the study by Rajati et al. [15]. The findings of the qualitative assessment for the studies analyzed in the meta-analysis can be found in Table 1.

Data extraction

To extract data, a pre-arranged checklist was utilized, encompassing the subsequent elements: the first author’s name, publication year, study’s country and continent, sample size, age, prevalence percentage, and quality assessment score using JBI.

Statistical analysis

The study focused on analyzing the prevalence of OCD in the older person by utilizing the percentage of occurrence. This allowed for the consolidation of findings from various studies based on the percentage or relative frequency reported in each study. To assess the heterogeneity among the studies, the I2 index was employed. Studies with an I2 index below 50% were categorized as having “low heterogeneity,” while those with an I2 index exceeding 50% were classified as having “high heterogeneity” [16]. Given the high level of heterogeneity observed among the results of the studies included in the meta-analysis (I2 ˃ 50%), the random effects model was deemed appropriate. In this particular model, variations in parameters across studies are taken into account, making the results more applicable to a wider range of scenarios compared to the fixed effect model, especially in cases of high heterogeneity [17]. Sensitivity analysis was conducted to pinpoint the origins of heterogeneity, while Egger’s regression intercept was utilized to detect any potential publication bias. Additionally, meta-regression was employed to explore the correlation between the prevalence of OCD in older adults and factors such as sample size, publication year, age, and qualitative assessment score. Subgroup analysis was carried out based on different continents and the gender distribution within the studies. The data underwent statistical analysis using the Comprehensive Meta-Analysis (CMA) software, with statistical significance set at a P value below 0.05.

Results

A total of 1547 studies were acquired from various databases and information sources for the meta-analysis. By utilizing EndNote, 495 duplicate and overlapping studies across different databases were eliminated. The title and abstract of the remaining 1052 studies were carefully reviewed, resulting in the exclusion of 1031 studies that were deemed irrelevant to the topic. Subsequently, the full text of the remaining 21 studies was thoroughly examined, leading to the exclusion of 11 studies that did not meet all the inclusion criteria. Finally, after a qualitative evaluation, 10 articles were deemed suitable for inclusion in the meta-analysis. The PRISMA 2020 flowchart, illustrating the steps taken, can be found in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
figure 1

PRISMA 2020 search flow diagram

Full size image

The meta-analysis comprised studies ranging from 1998 to 2020, with a total sample size of 54,377 individuals across 10 articles. The study conducted by Cath et al. had the largest sample size of 15,194 individuals [18]. The study of Pulular, 2013 was conducted on three countries (England, Wales and Scotland). Therefore, the data is presented separately for these three countries in Table 1. All articles included in the analysis were deemed to be of medium or high quality according to the JBI checklist. Table 1 provides detailed information on the characteristics and data of the articles included in the systematic review and meta-analysis.

Table 1 Specifications and data of articles entered in systematic review and meta-analysis
Full size table

Meta-analysis of the prevalence of OCD in the older person

The I2 index for the prevalence of OCD in the older person worldwide displays significant heterogeneity across studies (I2 = 96.45%). Therefore, the data underwent analysis utilizing the Random Effects model (Table 2). Egger’s regression intercept results indicated no publication bias in the studies at the 0.1 level (P = 0.323) (Fig. 2). Upon combining the results of the studies included in the meta-analysis to estimate the prevalence of OCD in the older person globally, a rate of 2.4% (95% confidence interval: %1.8–3.3) was determined using the random effects model. The black square represents the percentage, with the length of the line segment denoting the 95% confidence interval in each study, while the rhombus symbolizes the prevalence of OCD in the older person worldwide (Fig. 3). Sensitivity analysis results revealed that eliminating any of the studies did not significantly alter the final outcome (Fig. 4).

Table 2 Report of the results of fixed and random effects model on meta-analysis
Full size table
Fig. 2
figure 2

Funnel plot estimating the prevalence of OCD in the older person based on the random effects model

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Fig. 3
figure 3

Forest plot of estimating the prevalence of OCD in the older person based on the random effects model

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Fig. 4
figure 4

Sensitivity analysis diagram of OCD prevalence estimation in the older person

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Meta-regression

Through the use of meta-regression analysis, the correlation between sample size (Fig. 5), year of publication (Fig. 6), qualitative assessment score (Fig. 7), and age (Fig. 8) was investigated in relation to the prevalence of OCD among the older person worldwide. It was observed that as the year of publication increased, there was a rising trend in the qualitative assessment score and age-related prevalence of OCD among the older person (p˂0.05) (Figs. 6, 7 and 8). However, the association between sample size and OCD prevalence in the older person was found to be statistically insignificant (p˃0.05) (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5
figure 5

Meta regression of the relationship between sample size and prevalence of OCD in the older person

Full size image
Fig. 6
figure 6

Meta-regression of the relationship between the year of the study and the prevalence of OCD in the older person

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Fig. 7
figure 7

Meta-regression of the relationship between the qualitative assessment score and the prevalence of OCD in the older person

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Fig. 8
figure 8

Meta-regression of the relationship between age and the prevalence of OCD in the older person

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Subgroup analysis

Subgroup analysis was conducted based on various continents and genders due to the significant heterogeneity observed in the studies. The Asian continent exhibited the highest prevalence of OCD in the older person, with a prevalence of 3.5% (95% confidence interval: 2.4–5.1). Furthermore, the estimated prevalence among the female population was 2.7% (95% confidence interval: 1.9–3.8) (Table 3).

Table 3 Subgroup analysis of the prevalence of OCD in the older person
Full size table

Discussion

The primary aim of the present systematic review and meta-analysis was to evaluate the prevalence of OCD in the older person population. A thorough search was carried out, coupled with an in-depth analysis. The overall prevalence of OCD in the older person was determined to be 2.4%. Nevertheless, a finding indicates that many of the early symptoms of the disorder are prevalent in children, adolescents, and young adults [13, 19]. Furthermore, according to the evidence, global lifetime and 12-month prevalence stand at 2.3% and 1.2%, respectively [14]. The prevalence among the older person, as indicated by the present research, is notably higher [14]. It has been observed that there is a significant delay in diagnosing the disease as a prevalent and incapacitating condition, resulting in a substantial time gap between the appearance of symptoms and the commencement of the treatment procedure [20, 21]. This time is projected to exceed a decade [22]. It is imperative to assess symptoms in older adults due to the influence of developmental stage-specific stressors (such as retirement and bereavement) on symptom onset, with a particular focus on physical symptoms of anxiety [23]. The findings indicate the importance of OCD in the older person population, as it is associated with an increased likelihood of major depression, bipolar disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, alcohol dependence, suicidal thoughts, and suicide attempts. Moreover, individuals with OCD experience higher levels of chronic pain, functional impairment, and reduced quality of life [20, 24]. The family and caregivers bear a significant burden due to OCD [25]. The burden of a chronic disease has detrimental effects on the mental well-being of older individuals, resulting in mood disorders [26]. The treatment protocols and guidelines designed for individuals aged 18–65 do not cater to the older person population, leading to inadequate access to suitable medical services for this age group [27].

The second main result of the present study is the high prevalence of OCD among the older person population in Asia. Despite findings suggesting a low prevalence of OCD in Asia, certain studies have presented contrasting results. Specifically, Singapore, Iran, and, India have reported prevalence rates of 3%, 1.8, and 0.8, respectively for OCD [28]. One explanation is that sociocultural factors contribute to variations among countries concerning OCD, impacting factors such as age of onset and the presence of other mental health conditions [29]. Culture plays a significant role in shaping the manifestation of OCD and determining the specific type of obsession experienced by individuals. One notable influence is the level of religiosity and spirituality, which has been found to impact the development of obsessive-compulsive traits. Furthermore, cultural factors such as concerns about contamination and attributing diseases to supernatural causes can also contribute to the expression of OCD symptoms. Among the various factors influencing OCD, adherence to religious rules and rituals stands out as a prominent contributor [30]. A study conducted in Brazil revealed that the age at which individuals develop obsessions is influenced by factors such as low quality of life, environmental stressors, and high criminality. This differs from the situation in the United States [29].

The present study showed that the prevalence of OCD among females was estimated at 2.7%. This finding was further supported by a prior study. In terms of lifetime prevalence, women are 1.6 times more likely to experience obsessive-compulsive disorder compared to men [31]. In a study that compared obsessions in Brazil and America, it was confirmed that women experienced obsessive-compulsive at a higher prevalence than men [29]. This disparity may be attributed to evolution, ovarian hormones, pregnancy, and postpartum effects, as well as cultural considerations [32].

This study offers important insights into the prevalence of obsessive-compulsive disorder among the older person, drawing from data spanning multiple decades and various reputable international databases. Additionally, it sheds light on the prevalence among women and identifies the continent with the highest prevalence rates. This study offers additional evidence for quantitatively estimating obsessive-compulsive disorder in the older person, in contrast to other studies that solely rely on systematic review using the PubMed database [19].

This systematic review and meta-analysis encountered limitations like lack of the full text of some articles and information about some variables, variability in methodology, and non-random geographic distribution. In general, it is recommended to conduct further epidemiological studies to more precisely determine the prevalence of OCD among the older person on a global scale.

Conclusion

The findings of the current study indicate a high prevalence of OCD among the older person. Hence, more experts, officials, and health policymakers must pay attention to this issue. Despite some limitations and inconsistencies in the data, we should not underestimate OCD in the older person as a condition with minor consequences, as it can significantly impact social functioning and relationships. Untreated symptoms may lead to a chronic course of the disorder, resulting in decreased functional abilities for the affected individuals. Therefore, researchers need to focus on the relationship between OCD and the older person. Acquiring more knowledge in this area can offer a more precise understanding of this specific relationship and, consequently, lead to an appropriate approach to addressing OCD in old age.

Data availability

Datasets are available through the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Abbreviations

OCD:

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

ASRAMA:

A Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Tehran Payame Noor University, Tehran, Iran

    Saba Heydarikhayat

  2. Student Research Committee, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran

    Mohsen Kazeminia

  3. Department of Nursing, School of Medicine, Iranshahr University of Medical Sciences, Iranshahr, Iran

    Nastaran Heydarikhayat

  4. Imam Khomeini Hospital, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran

    Mohsen Rezaei & Narges Heydarikhayat

  5. Cardiovascular Research Center, Imam-Ali Hospital, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran

    Arash Ziapour

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Contributions

MK, AZ and SH contributed to the design, NH and MR participated in most of the study steps. MK, SH, NH and AZ prepared the manuscript. MK, MS, AZ and NH assisted in designing the study, and helped in the, interpretation of the study. All authors have read and approved the content of the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Arash Ziapour.

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Ethics approval was received from the ethics committee of deputy of research and technology, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences (IR.KUMS.REC.1403.127).

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Heydarikhayat, S., Kazeminia, M., Heydarikhayat, N. et al. Prevalence of obsessive-compulsive disorder in the older person: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Geriatr 24, 874 (2024). https://doiorg.publicaciones.saludcastillayleon.es/10.1186/s12877-024-05440-0

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  • DOI: https://doiorg.publicaciones.saludcastillayleon.es/10.1186/s12877-024-05440-0

Keywords

BMC Geriatrics

ISSN: 1471-2318

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