Table 1 Participant demographics data and clinical characteristics

Female, n (%)

1562 (63.6%)

1185 (59.0%)

377 (84.5%)

< 0.001

Age, year, mean ± SD

69.0 ± 6.1

68.6 ± 5.8

70.7 ± 7.0

< 0.001

Body mass index, kg/m², n (%)

- < 18.5

- 18.5–24.9

- ≥25.0

197 (8.0%)

1,279 (52.1%)

979 (39.9%)

156 (7.8%)

1,072 (53.4%)

781 (38.9%)

41 (9.2%)

207 (46.4%)

198 (44.4%)

0.029

Charlson comorbidity index, n (%)

- 1–2

- 3–4

- ≥5

872 (35.5%)

1,368 (55.7%)

215 (8.8%)

757 (37.7%)

1,094 (54.5%)

158 (7.9%)

115 (25.8%)

274 (61.4%)

57 (12.8%)

< 0.001

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, n (%)

51 (2.1%)

46 (2.3%)

5 (1.1%)

0.142

Diabetes mellitus, n (%)

438 (17.8%)

347 (17.3%)

91 (20.4%)

0.132

Heart failure, n (%)

19 (0.8%)

14 (0.7%)

5 (1.1%)

0.368

Suboptimal calf circumference, n (%)

1,203 (49.0%)

969 (48.2%)

234 (52.5%)

0.116

Current smoking, n (%)

305 (12.4%)

282 (14.0%)

23 (5.2%)

< 0.001

Alcohol (≥ 3 units/day), n (%)

147 (6.0%)

127 (6.3%)

20 (4.5%)

0.152

Total lean mass, kg, mean ± SD

37.9 ± 7.1

38.6 ± 7.2

34.6 ± 5.5

< 0.001

ASM, kg, mean ± SD

17.3 ± 4.0

17.7 ± 4.1

15.7 ± 3.3

< 0.001

ASM/height², kg/m², mean ± SD

7.1 ± 1.2

7.1 ± 1.2

6.7 ± 1.1

< 0.001

Hand-grip strength, kg, mean ± SD

21.9 ± 7.0

22.9 ± 6.9

17.2 ± 5.0

< 0.001

Gait speed, m/s, mean ± SD

0.9 ± 0.2

0.9 ± 0.2

0.8 ± 0.2

< 0.001

Timed up-and-go test, s, mean ± SD

11.7 ± 3.7

11.0 ± 2.9

14.9 ± 5.1

< 0.001

Five-time sit-to-stand test, s, mean ± SD

16.3 ± 4.8

15.6 ± 4.2

19.8 ± 5.8

< 0.001

History of falling, n (%)

539 (22.0%)

367 (18.3%)

172 (38.6%)

< 0.001