Table 1 Summary characteristics of 45 included trials

Trials with a statistically significant reduction in falls

 Ang, 2011 [13]

Acute

70.3

52

Education

1822

0.29 (0.11–0.74)^b

 Di Massimo, 2022 [29]

Acute

79

53

SEC

779

0.14 (0.02–0.78)^a

 Haines, 2004 [11]

Subacute

80

67

Multifactorial

626

0.59 (0.26–1.34)^a*

 Hill, 2015 [12]

Subacute

81.4

62

Education

3606

0.60 (0.40–0.91)^a

 Stenvall, 2007 [30]

Acute

82.3

75

SEC

199

0.38 (0.19–0.74)^a

0.41 (0.20–0.83)^b*

 Xiong, 2024 [32]^

Subacute

68.5

53

Exercise

160

0.47 (0.23–0.98)^a*

 Di Gennaro, 2024 [31]^

Mixed

83

55

Multiple

10,371

0.71 (0.60–0.84)^a

Trials with a statistically non-significant reduction in falls

 Daley, 2021 [33]

Acute

NR

51

SEC

1032

0.33 (0.07–1.61)^a

 Dykes, 2010 [35]

Acute

78.8

55

SEC

10,264

0.55 (0.02–16.29) ^a*#

0.91 (0.06–14.21)^b

 Healey, 2004 [36]

Mixed

81.3

60

Multifactorial

1654

0.59 (0.26–1.34) ^a*#

 Jarvis, 2007 [28]

Subacute

NR

100

Exercise

29

0.46 (0.15–1.43)^b*

 Michalek, 2014 [39]

Subacute

83.5

79

Medication review

114

0.14 (0.00–6.63)^a*

0.18 (0.01–3.35)^b*^#

 Treacy, 2015 [42]

Subacute

81.2

64

Exercise

161

0.640.21–1.95)^a

 Van Gaal, 2011 [43]

Acute

78

66

SEC

392

0.67 (0.17–2.59)^a

 Wald, 2011 [44]

Acute

80.8

55

SEC

217

0.72 (0.10–5.1) ^a*

 Wolf, 2013 [45]

Subacute

76.1

65

Environmental

98

0.53 (0.22–1.29)^a*

0.89 (0.32–2.46)^b

 Donald, 2000 [34]

Subacute

83

81

Exercise

54

0.21 (0.04–1.16)^b*

 Martinez, 2012 [38]

Acute

78.2

63

Environmental

287

0 .11 (0.01–1.58)^b

 Partridge, 2017 [40]

Acute

75.5

24

Education

209

0.31 (0.07–1.40)^b

 Pfeiffer, 2020 [41]

Subacute

82.5

76

SEC

115

0.17 (0.04–0.74) ^a

0.18 (0.04–0.79)^b

 Liang, 2020 [37]

Subacute

87.3

43

Multifactorial

60

0.57 (0.19–1.73) ^a

 Wang, 2022 [47]

Mixed

NR

NR

Education

684

0.23 (0.05–1.07)^b

 Twibell, 2023 [49]^

Acute

70.2

53

Education

171

0.18 (0.02–1.43)^a*

 Morris. 2024 [48]^

Subacute

81

53

Education

541

0.66 (0.32–1.36)^a

0.63 (0.32–1.23)^b

Trials without an observed effect on falls

 Barker, 2016 [14]

Acute

67

49

Exercise

35,264

1.04 (0.79–1.37) ^a

0.99 (0.33–3.00)^b*^#

 Burleigh, 2007 [50]

Acute

84

59

Medication

205

0.82 (0.59–1.14)^b

 Cumming, 2008 [15]

Mixed

79

59

Multifactorial

3999

0.96 (0.72–1.29) ^a

1.04 (0.48–2.228)^b*#

 Farhat, 2022 [51]

Acute

86.3

75

Medication review

123

1.03 (0.22–4.92)^b

 Haines, 2010 [59]

Mixed

NR

NR

Environmental

11,099

0.79 (0.52–1.20)

 Haines, 2011 [52]

Mixed

75.2

53

Education

1206

0.83 (0.49–1.40) ^a*

0.74 (0.43–1.28)^b

 Mayo, 1994 [53]

Subacute

71.9

46

Environmental

134

1.15 (0.72–1.84) ^a*

 McCullagh, 2020 [54]

Acute

80

64

Exercise

199

1.00 (0.21–4.83)^b

 Mudge, 2022 [55]

Acute

77

50

Multicomponent

539

1.04 (0.15–7.10) ^a

 Scheffers-Barnhoorn, 2019 [56]

Subacute

82.5

61

Multicomponent

78

1.0 (0.27–3.65)^b*

 Shorr, 2012 [58]

Acute

NR

NR

Environmental

27,672

1.09 (0.15–8.08) ^a*

0.89 (0.32–2.46)^b*#

 Senserrick, 2021 [57]

Subacute

81.2

71

Exercise

76

0.78 (0.16–3.89) ^a

0.50 (0.05–5.28)^b

 Young, 2020 [46]

Acute

82.7

68

Multicomponent

713

0.76 (0.29- 1.99)^b

 Cuvelier, 2023 [60]^

Mixed

85.6

53

Other

32

0.88 (0.46–1.68)^b

 Hastings, 2023 [61]^

Acute

72.9

3

Exercise

17,237

0.8 (0.5–1.1)^b

Trials with a statistically non-significant increase in falls

 Koh, 2009 [65]

Acute

68

NR

SEC

1122

1.82 (0.23–14.55) ^a*#

 Mador, 2004 [67]

Acute

82.5

48

SEC

71

2.44 (0.85–7.02) ^a*

 Gazineo, 2021 [63]

Acute

86.3

NR

Exercise

387

1.81 (0.62–5.29) ^a

 Hempenius, 2013 [64]

Acute

77.5

64

SEC

297

2.10 (0.39 – 11.31)^b

 Appel, 2024 [62]^

Acute

NR

65

Other

69

1.58 (1.15–2.19)^a*

0.90 (0.56–1.43)^b*

 Lozano-Vicario, 2024 [66]^

Acute

87.4

62

Exercise

36

2.0 (0.20–20.15)^a*